FLOOD PLAIN ETHICS THE CONFLICTS BETWEEN UTILITARIANISM AND ALDO LEOPOLD8217S LAND ETHICS essays

Standards of Public International Law Essay â€Å"Law will never truly have a viable impact in global relations until it can add to its own circle a portion of the issues which at present exist in the residential purview of the few states. † Discuss ‘The standards and guidelines set up in a network by some power and pertinent to its kin, regardless of whether as enactment or of custom and arrangements recognised’. The previously mentioned is a meaning of law as characterized by the American Heritage word reference of the English Language. In the event that we apply this meaning of network in its strictest sense it turns out to be progressively hard to buy in to the view that there is a global network on the loose. In the event that we start to dissect insights that show that there are more than 7000 dialects on the planet, roughly 10,000 unmistakably various religions, and a debatably unending number of ethnic gatherings across simply the 195 nations that involve our worldwide society, at that point it turns out to be plainly evident that we would be in an ideal situation featuring our disruptiveness as opposed to our possibilities as a worldwide network. Our aggregate history as people, in any case, recounts to an alternate tale about our normal intrigue and the manner by which we have officially raised and torn down obstructions to advance the equivalent. We have, then again, been isolated based on contrasting belief systems and the activity of selective patriotism. Since the last is an estimation which dwells specifically countries which have at their center a set lawful system approving their very presence and their connection with different countries, it is basic to any investigation of law’s application to global relations. How does a sovereign country accommodate its very power with its developing should be coordinated into a contracting worldwide society with its attendant contracting worldwide economy? Plainly a few trade offs must be made. Before we consider a particular cases where states have chosen to give up a portion of their sovereign force, we should consider the ramifications of the term sway itself, the components of power and its significance to a country state. Much has been composed on the subject of power. Definitions differ marginally from one content to the next however they all have at their center, when explicitly alluding to state sway, real power. In Sohail H. Hashmi’s talk on sway in the book ‘State Sovereignty, Change and Resistance in International Relations’, he states, alluding to the idea of genuine power, that it is â€Å" a wide idea †not a definition but rather a wide classification †that joins the vast majority of sovereignty’s convention. He further notes that authority can be characterized as â€Å"The option to order and correlatively, the option to be obeyed† and is just genuine â€Å"when it is viewed as right by those living under it. † It is to be noticed that genuine authority isn't just the possibility of more force. R. P. Wolf, the twentieth century political scholar and individual revolutionary, delineates the distinction all the more forcefully in an old style model in which he contends â€Å"if I am const rained at gunpoint to hand over my cash, I am liable to control; on the off chance that I pay my expenses despite the fact that I want to swindle I am perceiving genuine position. † We should perceive, in any case, that however authentic authority is the general standard on any talk on state sway, there are explicit components of state sway that are essential, which each sovereign state expects dear to remember and endeavors to hold paying little mind to apparently vital or specified concessions of intensity, impact or position to the global network. They incorporate International Legal Validation (of a sovereign state), Interdependence Sovereignty and Domestic Sovereignty. Worldwide Legal Validation can be seen as the privilege of the state to be a sovereign element as recommended by ‘international law’. It is genuine authority as a legitimate build or as Hashami puts it â€Å"legitimate authority† that is â€Å"prescribed by the law. † (Hashami, pg 18) The creator Stephen D. Krasner in his book ‘Sovereignty, Organized Hypocrisy’ depicts this component of sway as worldwide lawful power. He expresses that it â€Å"refers to the practices related with common acknowledgment, typically between regional elements that have formal juridical autonomy. † At its center universal lawful approval concerns issues of the acknowledgment of states. In the event that one were uninformed about the political atmosphere on the worldwide front, the characteristic response to the inquiry ‘how did a state become a state? ’ would be that ‘the would-be state must fulfill the characterized specifications (in universal law) for turning into a state. Following this line of thinking would definitely lead one to the absolute first article of the Montevideo Convention on Rights and Duties of States, which since 1933 set out that â€Å"The state, as an individual of universal law ought to have the accompanying capabilities: (a) lasting populace; (b) a characterized region; (c) government; and (d) ability to go into relations with different states. It doesn't take a lot of political sharp, in any case, to comprehend that the lawful models for statehood and the real measures for being perceived as a state by the worldwide network everywhere is a true and by law issue. As Krasner hypothesizes â€Å"States have perceived diffe rent governments in any event, when they didn't have authority over their asserted domain, for example, the German and Italian acknowledgment of the Franco system in 1936, and the American acknowledgment of the Lon Nol government in Cambodia in 1970. States have kept on perceiving governments which have lost force, including Mexican acknowledgment of the Spanish republican system of 1977, and acknowledgment of the Chinese Nationalist system by the entirety of the significant Western forces until the 1970s. States have would not perceive new governments in any event, when they have built up powerful control, for example, the British refusal to perceive the July ruler in France until 1832, the US refusal to perceive the Soviet system until 1934. (Krasner, pg 15) The acknowledgment of states is unquestionably a zone in which the law (as recommended by the Montevideo Convention and all the more as of late the EU, which has practically indistinguishable precepts concerning the acknowledgment of states) has demonstrated incapable in universal relations absolutely in light of the political plans and thus residential locale of the few states which mirror the political atmosphere where they work. States endeavor to clutch this sort of power since it bears them clout and approval in a worldwide society in which relationship isn't only a perfect however an apparatus for endurance, in any event and a fundamental guide to success at the exceptionally most. The point here isn't that nonrecognition carries with it a type of outright seclusion which renders the unrecognized state for all time banned from global business and conciliatory relations. What is of foremost significance, notwithstanding, is the way that nonrecognition carries with it a quality of vulnerability concerning the unrecognized state, especially according to worldwide firms which therefore might be increasingly hesitant to contribute. Krasner takes note of that â€Å"by encouraging accords, worldwide lawful sway offers the opportunities for rulers to make sure about outside assets that can upgrade their capacity to remain in control and advance the security, financial, and ideational enthusiasm of their constituents. (Krasner, pg 17) Interdependence power is the capacity of a state to manage the progression of data, products, thoughts and individuals into and out of its nation. States attempt to clutch this sort of sway on the grounds that their capacity to do this is straightforwardly identified with their capacity to successfully take control and compose their own nation, which fundamentally is household power which states must clutch by definition I. e. so as to be a state in any case. We will consider reasons which brief states to give up a portion of their power later in our conversation. We have up to this point recognized, by means of a few models, in view of the governmental issues engaged with the procedure of common acknowledgment of states, that the issue of universal lawful sway or worldwide legitimate approval is a true versus by right thought. Is this, notwithstanding, a pattern in the lawful systems in global relations? The law, in view of our recently characterized definition, must be pertinent to the on-screen characters in the network in hich it is working. In the event that, in the domain of universal relations, the law can be intentionally and routinely spurned by the individuals who go under its coercion then genuine inquiries emerge about the very presence of ‘international law’. It must be noted however that states obviously work inside the activities of a law request which to a huge degree manages their everyday communications with each other and which is self-ruling in its tasks. There are an innumerable number of global treatises that are immovably seen on an everyday premise. Models incorporate global understandings which encourage the smooth forward and backward vehicle of letters which are shipped to all edges of the globe at fixed rates which are specified by the Universal postal association, the foundation of several football classes around the world the individual nations who direct them all buying in to the particular guidelines and guideline set out by the world overseeing body in football, F. I. F. A. what's more, the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations which manage the cost of representatives exclusion from arraignment inside the courts of the nation in which they are positioned. It is e

Arguing the Existence of God from Religious Experience Free Essays

Break down the contention for the presence of God from strict experience â€Å"A strict experience offers a feeling of a definitive and an attention to completeness, a cognizance of the interminable and an outright reliance. † Edward Schleiermacher. Strict experience has been an antagonistic subject for logicians of religion in attempting to really characterize what a strict encounter is, alongside analysts and strict adherents. We will compose a custom paper test on Contending the Existence of God from Religious Experience or on the other hand any comparable subject just for you Request Now Otto, James, Hardy and Schleiermacher are among numerous individuals who have attempted to characterize a strict encounter and there fundamental comprehension is it is an experience with the divine.It is non-experimental, an individual event that carries with it a consciousness of something past ourselves. The individuals who have had such an encounter consider it a definitive verification of the presence of God. It is hard to locate a typical subject with strict encounters because of the assortment however you can separate them into two essential gatherings; an immediate experience and a roundabout encounter. Declarations of the event of strict encounters can be found all through mankind's history, however do they demonstrate that humankind has a connection with God on the off chance that they are valid and on the off chance that they are bogus, for what reason are we so prepared to trust them?Every declaration of a strict encounter is interesting and most happen to people in privat e yet others are ‘corporate’ encounters, when enormous quantities of individuals share in a similar encounter. In spite of the declaration of devotees there is an immense scope of elective clarifications for such occasions which implies it is difficult to show up at a positive comprehension of strict experience and to check or adulterate whether such occasions happen. The contention from strict experience is an inductive argument.Those who accept that strict encounters are verification of Gods presence as a rule contend inductively and take a gander at the emotional declarations of people to make comparable determinations from their encounters that must be clarified as far as the presence of God. Accordingly Richard Swinburne in ‘Is there a God? ’ contends inductively that it is sensible to accept that God is adoring and individual and would look to uncover himself to mankind as a demonstration of affection to empower individuals to realize great; â€Å"An transcendent and flawlessly great maker will try to interface with his animals and, specifically, with human people fit for knowing him. Swinburne proposes that strict encounters can be felt observationally and deciphered non-exactly through our ‘religious sense. ’ Thus, in the event that somebody has a strict encounter, we ought to accept the experience has occurred, regardless of whether their experience varies from others. In break down of the inductive contention, it is solid as there is proof that after the experience the experient is changed until the end of time. In addition the absolute most noteworthy occasions in history have come about because of individuals having strict encounters, for example, Paul’s change in the wake of seeing a dream of Christ and was instrumented into spreading Christianity around the world.Nevertheless, the proceeded with issue remains that the end is simply the most appropriate answer that seems likely based on the proof advertised. The end relies upon an exact translation of the proof which might be impacted by the convictions of the experient or the individual deciphering the experience. The aggregate contention for strict experience depends on the view that on the off chance that you take all the contentions about strict experience together, at that point they are more persuading than one contention alone.If all the declarations to strict encounters are considered, at that point this would absolutely add weight to strict experience as confirmation of the presence of God. Swinburne finishes up his work w ith the aggregate contention and accepts that when the contentions are considered in confinement of the others they don’t demonstrate God, yet set up, they make a staggering contention which can't be denied in the amazing sizes of Atheism Vs Theism. However, it has been contended the hypothesis is consistently and scientifically imperfect as taking many low probabilities and including doesn't make progressively likely contention †in actuality the inverse. You ought to duplicate the frail contentions to get an exceptionally feeble contention. Richard Swinburne accepted that except if we have valid justification to imagine that somebody isn't coming clean we should take a shot at the rule that what they state is the situation, these are his ‘principles of declaration and credulity’. Under his standard of declaration, he contends except if we have proof to the opposite we ought to accept what individuals state when they guarantee to have had a strict encounter: â€Å"In the nonattendance of uncommon contemplations, the encounters of others are as they report. Besides Swinburne made the rule of credulity that believes that except if we have overpowering proof despite what might be expected, we ought to accept that things are as they appear to be. In ‘The Existence of God’ he composed; â€Å"How things appear to be is a decent manual for how things are.. † Therefore in his view, strict encounters give a pe rsuading evidence to the presence of God. In help if Swinburne’s position, exact research embraced as of late has demonstrated that the same number of as 40% of individuals have sooner or later in their lives had an encounter that could be delegated religious.Furthermore in 1969, the Religious Experience Research Unit in Oxford overviewed individuals by asking them the inquiry: ‘Have you whenever in your life had an encounter of something totally unique structure your typical life, regardless of whether you would depict it as God? ’ Many reacted emphatically, saying it was the first occasion when they had informed anybody concerning their experience yet it had been one of the most significant snapshots of their lives.However one trouble Steven Law features in his book ‘The Puzzle of Ethics’ is taking such ‘revelatory’ encounters at face esteem isn't confined to one confidence. He composed, â€Å"Catholics see the Virgin Mary. Hindus witness Vishnu.. the way that individuals have such huge numbers of peculiar and regularly opposing encounters. . should lead somebody who professes to have had a ‘revelation’ to treat their involvement in alert. † Law calls for experients to scrutinize their experience and for nonbelievers to remain doubter, as the experient could without much of a stretch have mixed up their experience.The contention from strict experience is a back which implies that it depends on understanding, and if the experience is solid it might prompt solid ends. Numerous theists have confidence all together for a faith in God to be judicious, they don’t need to back up their involvement in confirmation as God’s presence was straightforwardly uncovered to them through an individual encounter of God. The individuals who have encountered may have done as such yet the proof doesn’t emphatically bolster that end for non-strict adherents. The most effective method to refer to Arguing the Existence of God from Religious Experience, Papers

The Silent Retreat Indian Removals as Represented by Hobomok and The Pioneers - Literature Essay Samples

The Silent Retreat: Indian Removals as Represented by Hobomok and The PioneersThe historicity of the Indian removals that took place during the 19th century in the United States is one that has been embellished in literature and dramatized in film. The most poignant of the Indian removals came during the presidency of Martin Van Buren, who enforced a treaty that led to the Trail of Tears—a grueling migration that led to the death of nearly 4,000 Cherokee Indians. The policy aimed at pushing Native American tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River is frequently represented as incessantly violent and brutal, and though atrocities did occur, many leaders reluctantly and despondently agreed to treaties and quietly retreated into the wilderness of the west without any bloodshed. The novels Hobomok, by Lydia Maria Child, and The Pioneers, by James Fenimore Cooper, both conclude with the image of a solitary Native American peacefully recoiling from white culture. To some extent , the endings reflect the silent tragedy of the warless—yet coerced nonetheless—flight of thousands of Native Americans during the 1800s, though the dignified departures of Hobomok and Natty Bumpo do not align with the shameful and heartbreaking exit of the majority of Indians during this era. Child concludes Hobomok with the retreat of the novel’s namesake into the wild: [Hobomok] was seldom spoken of; and by the degrees his Indian appellation was silently omitted. But the devoted, romantic love of Hobomok was never forgotten by its object; and his faithful services to the ‘Yengees’ are still remembered with gratitude, though the tender slip which he protected, has since become a mighty tree, and the nations of the earth seek refuge beneath its branches (Chapter XX). The conclusion represents Hobomok’s departure as noble, which seems an unlikely result of the majority of Indian removals during the 19th century. Dishonored by the strong arm o f the American government, Native American tribes did not enjoy the same level as respect Child grants Hobomok. Few Indians were revered and remembered to the extent of Hobomok, and most were long forgotten with their displacement. However, Cooper presents a similar instance of respectful Indian flight west in The Pioneers. The romantic novelist ends his story in the same fashion as Child—with the respectful removal of the book’s central Native American figure.[Natty Bumpo] drew his hard hand hastily across his eyes again, waved it on high for an adieu, and, uttering a forced cry to his dogs, who were crouching at his feet, he entered the forest. This was the last that they ever saw of the Leather-stocking †¦ He had gone far towards the setting sun—the foremost in that band of Pioneers, who are opening the way for the march of the nation across the continent (456).Both Hobomok and The Pioneers use Indian removals to express the mutual exclusivity of white A merican and Native American cultures. Ultimately, Hobomok and Natty Bumpo cannot and will not assimilate into the dominant white society, and therefore have no choice but the leave that world and enter the wilderness. The key distinction between Child and Cooper’s accounts is that the latter author incorporates Natty into the process of Manifest Destiny, while the former expressed the character’s demise at the hand of American westward expansion. Whereas Hobomok disappears into an insignificant existence in the frontier, Natty helps lead the way for frontiersman who will head westward, as part of â€Å"the march of the nation across the continent.† In response to the passing of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, United States Senator Edward Everett said the policy’s â€Å"evil †¦ [was enormous]. â€Å"You cannot explain it; you cannot reason it away,† he told the Congress in 1830. â€Å"Our friends will view this measure with sorrow, and our e nemies alone with joy. And we ourselves, when the interests and passions of the day are past, shall look back upon it, I fear, with self-reproach, and a regret as bitter as unavailing.† Indeed, the coerced removal of thousands of Native Americans—bloody and bloodless alike—is a part of the nation’s history that many Americans like to forget. A stain on the liberal foundations of the nation, occurrences like the Indian Removal Act in the 19th century, racial segregation through the 20th century and Japanese internment camps during World War II are contentious because they serve as stark contradictions to the American ideology. Child and Cooper addressed the issue of Indian removals years later so as to preserve the passing of a race and eternalize a great American shame to admonish future generations.

The Constitution Is A Living Document - 1269 Words

THE CONSTITUTION IS A LIVING DOCUMENT At the end of the twentieth century, there have been 159 constitutions written for various countries in the world, 101 of them enacted just since 1970. France, for example, has had ten different constitutions including five republics, two empires, a monarchy, and two dictatorships. The country of El Salvador has had thirty-six constitutions since 1824. The United States, however, has the oldest written framework for the governing of a nation in the world and has functioned under that same framework for over two hundred years. Nearly all current constitutions bear at least some resemblance to the one written in Philadelphia, in 1787, by men who met to work out the framework of the United States government. Like the Constitution of the United States, many countries have written constitutions. Their constitutions spell out human and civil rights similar to those written in the United States Constitution. Many nations have imitated principles written in the American At the end of the twentieth century, there have been 159 constitutions written for various countries in the world, 101 of them enacted just since 1970. France, for example, has had ten different constitutions including five republics, two empires, a monarchy, and two dictatorships. The country of El Salvador has had thirty-six constitutions since 1824. The United States, however, has the oldest written framework for the governing of a nation in the world and hasShow MoreRelatedThe Constitutional Convention Of 17871383 Words   |  6 Pagessolut ion was for the executive power to be checked by the legislature as a means to best represent the people. Hamilton instead believed that the federal government should be based upon the British constitution and monarchy. At the convention s conclusion, the delegates had created the U.S. Constitution which included several major political compromises among the differing factions within the Constitutional Convention. (Dahl, Debate on Representation, Lecture) The Great Compromise, also known asRead MoreThe Debate Over The Method Of Constitutional Interpretation1556 Words   |  7 Pagescontenders of a loose interpretation argue that our understanding of the Constitution adapt with our society today and new developments that have been formed since it was first written. Conversely, strict constructionists argue that the interpretation of the Constitution must be based off of what is plainly written in the Constitution- nothing more and nothing less. 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The Irony of Capital Punishment - 2224 Words

The Irony of Capital Punishment Capital punishment has been a part of our justice system since the beginning. For many years the controversy of the death penalty has created social issues that question the validity and fairness based on concerns of moral and human rights. Even though many other nations use this form of justice, the fact that the United States views itself as a leader of human rights brings question to whether we are practicing what we preach. Nevertheless, the majority of US citizens are in support of the death penalty but does that make it rational? In the following paragraphs I will discuss my opinions on capital punishment and talk about issues concerning the death penalty as a deterrent to crime, should it be†¦show more content†¦Imposition of proper penalty is the manner in which the courts respond to the societys cry for fairness against the criminals. Another case that supports capital punishment is the idea of â€Å"an eye for an eye† but to argue like that demonstrates a co mplete misunderstanding of what that Old Testament phrase actually means. In fact the Old Testament meaning of an eye for an eye is that only the guilty should be punished, and they should punished neither too lenient or too severely. It seems to me that the argument of â€Å"eye for an eye† I believe that it has more to do with vengeance than retribution or justice. The anticipatory suffering of the criminal, who may be kept on death row for many years, makes the punishment more severe than just depriving the criminal of life. Some believers in the death penalties see this issue as an undeniably efficient way to insure offender will not commit anymore crimes. On the other hand, many people dont think that this is sufficient justification for taking human life, and argue that there are other ways to ensure the offenders do not re-offend, such as imprisonment for life without possibility of parole. Although there have been cases of persons escaping from prison and killing again, these are extremely rare. But some people dont believe that life imprisonment without parole protects society adequately. The offender may no longer be a danger toShow MoreRelatedA Hanging By George Orwell799 Words   |  4 PagesHanging† by the visionary English writer, George Orwell, is a non- fiction prose. A Hanging is an account of Orwell’s experience of capital punishment. Orwell’s purpose of A Hanging is to evoke reader’s sympathy for the plight of the prisoner. This essay will discuss how Orwellâ⠂¬â„¢s account made the reader consider their views on the ongoing concern of capital punishment, through the use of effective language. 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Integrating Sustainability In Managing IT â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Integrating Sustainability In Managing IT? Answer: Introduction The need for sustainable development is increasing with the passage of time. This is a very important concept that the society and organizations are incorporating in its various layers and fields. Most of the important projects integrate sustainable developments in its functionalities for the development and progress of the organization as well as the well being of the society. A project consists of several phases and each of them needs to be integrated with sustainability and decisions must be based on sustainability (Griggs et al. 2013). A business sector operates in a society and in order to get success they must take care of the society as well. The depletion of natural resources is a main concern for the society. While developing a project an organization considers all the aspects of technicality and appoints a manager who would particularly take care of the integration of sustainability in managing project. This essay focuses on the sustainability integration while managing projects. This essay gives the main focus on the IT project management and IT sector. This is the most booming sector in the present era. It consumes and utilizes several resources for the completion of its projects. This essay points out on the requirement of integrating sustainability in IT project management (Dincer and Rosen 2012). It points out the project management approaches. The relevance of sustainability lies in the fact that the utilization of resources is leading to their depletion and it is affecting the community and environment in a harmful way. It gives a brief overview about the critical success factors and the criteria for an IT project. The corporate social responsibility plays a major role in implementing and planning for a project. This essay suggests that a proper balance in the economic growth with the society and environmental protection must be maintained for the betterment of people. Brief Overview Sustainability focuses on fulfilling the requirements and needs of the people who are in the present generation. Their main aim is to utilize the resources in such manner so that the people of the future generation will not have to suffer or compromise (Eskerod and Huemann 2013). Well planned and optimal utilization of the resources will not lead to the depletion of natural resources. There are several other definitions of sustainability as well like it can be considered to be a minute change or major reorientation in the strategies that are adopted by the global businesses. The carbon percentage in the climate has decreased and it is also expected that the climate will change due to the over consumptions of resources by the IT industry. IT sector or businesses are said to be responsible for emitting around two per cent of carbon. IT projects can take several initiatives to integrate sustainability by the process of saving energy (SILvIuS and SChIPPER 2012). Computers can be functioned to shut down in an automatic manner, consolidation of data centre and energy efficient hardware deployment will be some of the effective steps that can be taken by IT projects to integrate sustainability. The hardware deployed in IT projects utilizes huge amount of energy. Another main point is that an IT project also needs huge storage space for the purpose of storing data and information. People get employed mostly in the IT sector. If the IT projects harm the society and do not take care of the natural resources then it will create a negative impact on the people of the future generation. Integration of economical factors, environmental factors and social factors will help in achieving sustainability in a project. Energy saving methods is the main way of integrating sustainability in IT projects. One most important way that can be used by an IT project in order to save the storage space is by deploying cloud infrastructure that will enable the company to store data in the cloud by saving storage space as well as cost. Another method to save storage space is to use small storage devices that can hold huge quantity of data (Lang et al. 2012). This is the concept of Green IT. The high energy consumption traditional monitors can be replaced by LCD monitors. LCD monitors consumes energy in small amounts. Laptops can be used to save energy. The electronic devices used in IT sector and projects are made of metals that are depleting. Recycling can be done while planning and executing an IT project. Success Criteria In order to get success in an IT project several success criteria needs to be fulfilled. Efficient implementation must be carried out (Zou et al. 2014). IT projects must not only focus on the technical aspect but also focus on the social and economical aspects. IT projects must be developed by taking into account the environment in which it operates. Proper strategies must be taken in order to develop good quality project that will not harm the society or environment. High quality of project must be maintained. Initially the developers did not pay much attention to the quality of the project. But soon it became a major success criterion for IT projects. The project team must understand the value of the deliverables of the project. Socio economic factors must be given special attention. The satisfaction level of the customers as well as stakeholders is taken into account while evaluating the success of the projects. The success criteria also depends on the impact of IT projects on the society as in the communities and environment (Ebbese and Hope 2013). The project must be developed in such a way so that the project will not consume much energy and natural resources. The environmental factors must be taken into account. If the project does not harm the environment then it is said to be a successful sustainable IT project. Resources must be utilized in such a manner so that the people of the future generation will not have to suffer. The focus should be on fulfilling the requirements of the present generation but at the same time keeping in mind the need of the future generation. There are also economic success criteria where the implications of the IT projects on the economic condition of the nation, stakeholders, local and global system. If the financial conditions of the economy improve due to an IT project then it is said to be successful. Critical Success Factors There are several critical success factors of IT projects. The impact of the project on the society, economy and environment plays a significant role in the success of a sustainable IT project (De Medeiros, Ribeiro and Cortimiglia 2014). Top management involvement and support plays a major role and it is the most critical factor of success. The top management must focus on the corporate social responsibility. Communication is a critical or vital factor for achieving success. The sustainable requirements of the project can be determined clearly if there is effective means of communication. Financial budget must be well planned and determined in advance. Proper budgeting will act as a critical success factor. Surveillance and monitoring must be carried out on a regular basis. Human factors are the internal factors that are highly responsible for the success of a sustainable project. Innovative thinking as well as strong policies is critical success factor. The IT project team must have a procedure for saving resources and integrating sustainability in the project. The impact on the society and environment determines how successful the project is. Resource utilization is the most important critical success factor because optimal utilization does not harm the society and environment. There will be low energy consumption. Hence a sustainable project in the IT industry will get success. Project Management Approach Integration of sustainability in managing and developing IT projects can be achieved through the approaches of project management. The level of commitment must be high. The procurement method obtained must be ethical. The IT projects must adhere to the laws and policies for keeping the environment and society safe (Heising 2012). Ethical principles must be followed by the IT project team. The major steps that can be taken in the project management approach are: Identifying possible impacts: This has to be done in the planning stage. When a project team is deciding to develop a project then in that case the team also needs to find out the negative impact that the project will have on the society, environment and economy. Preventive measures: The organization needs to find out several measures so that sustainability is achieved. IT projects can use LCDs and cloud platforms for reserving energy. Mitigation procedures: If the society or environment is somehow harmed then the organization needs to have a plan for mitigating the loss that has occurred in the society, economy and the environment. Proper methods of resource utilization must be implemented to overcome the problems of resource depletion. In order to integrate sustainability in the IT projects a proper balance needs to be maintained between the economic, environmental and social needs. Sustainability should focus on fulfilling the requirements of the people of the present generation as well as keeping in mind the needs of the people of future generation (Kerzner 2013). The future generation must not suffer due to lack of resources. The project management approach can be holistic where there is an integration of the ecological, social and economical aspects. In the long term orientation approach sustainability takes into account the future needs. Good governance can be under the institutional approach (Hirschman 2014). The risk reduction approach focuses on minimizing risks. Sustainability can be considered to be the most important component that needs to be integrated in IT project for its success. Conclusion It can be concluded from this essay that the integrating sustainability in managing IT projects are very important. It pointed out the project management approaches. It gave a brief overview about the critical success factors and the criteria for an IT project. This essay suggested that a proper balance in the economic growth with the society and environmental protection must be maintained for the betterment of people. The corporate social responsibility plays a major role in implementing and planning for a project. References Barbier, E. ed., 2012.Economics and ecology: new frontiers and sustainable development. Springer Science Business Media. De Medeiros, J.F., Ribeiro, J.L.D. and Cortimiglia, M.N., 2014. Success factors for environmentally sustainable product innovation: a systematic literature review.Journal of Cleaner Production,65, pp.76-86. Dincer, I. and Rosen, M.A., 2012.Exergy: energy, environment and sustainable development. Newnes. Ebbesen, J.B. and Hope, A., 2013. Re-imagining the iron triangle: embedding sustainability into project constraints.PM World Journal,2(III). Eskerod, P. and Huemann, M., 2013. Sustainable development and project stakeholder management: what standards say.International Journal of Managing Projects in Business,6(1), pp.36-50. Griggs, D., Stafford-Smith, M., Gaffney, O., Rockstrm, J., hman, M.C., Shyamsundar, P., Steffen, W., Glaser, G., Kanie, N. and Noble, I., 2013. Policy: Sustainable development goals for people and planet.Nature,495(7441), pp.305-307. Heising, W., 2012. The integration of ideation and project portfolio managementA key factor for sustainable success.International Journal of Project Management,30(5), pp.582-595. Hirschman, A.O., 2014.Development projects observed. Brookings Institution Press. Kerzner, H., 2013.Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling. John Wiley Sons. Lang, D.J., Wiek, A., Bergmann, M., Stauffacher, M., Martens, P., Moll, P., Swilling, M. and Thomas, C.J., 2012. Transdisciplinary research in sustainability science: practice, principles, and challenges.Sustainability science,7(1), pp.25-43. SILvIuS, G.I.L.B.E.R.T. and SChIPPER, R.O.N., 2012.Sustainability in project management. Gower Publishing, Ltd.. Zou, W., Kumaraswamy, M., Chung, J. and Wong, J., 2014. Identifying the critical success factors for relationship management in PPP projects.International Journal of Project Management,32(2), pp.265-274.

Qualities of a Good Leader (Julius Caesar) Essay Example

Qualities of a Good Leader (Julius Caesar) Essay The qualities of a good leader require courage, strength, knowledge, good morals and power. A good leader should possess all these qualities mentioned. Without these qualities a leader may lack in certain areas which may cause them to be an unsuccessful leader. All good leaders should require good qualities within them in order to lead or gain respect from others. Good leaders should have strength and courage. If a leader is not strong or courageous, then he or she may not be fit for the role. Leaders need to have a strong courage in their hearts because anything at anytime could happen, but it takes a good leader to act on the situation with courage and strength without panic or fright. Also, every good leader should attain knowledge. Without knowledge, a leader may not be able to make the right decisions. Knowledge is a very important factor as it strongly contributes to great leadership. Having good morals is very important as well. If a leader does not have good morals, it can bring down a nation. Each leader should have good morals set in their minds in order to rule. Also, a good leader should have power. They should know that they are in charge and that they get to make the calls and decisions. These are some qualities of a good leader. Based on reading Act 1 of Julius Caesar, it indicates that Caesar does not have the qualities it takes to become a good leader. We will write a custom essay sample on Qualities of a Good Leader (Julius Caesar) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Qualities of a Good Leader (Julius Caesar) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Qualities of a Good Leader (Julius Caesar) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer But from reading all of Act 1, I believe that the conspiracy is being justified. I believe that Caesar has some good qualities in order to be a ruler and that Rome did not just choose Caesar to reign if he did not have any good qualities of a leader. I believe that the conspiracy is being justified because they wanted Pompey to reign instead of Caesar, but they did not have it their way. That is why I believe that Caesar instills qualities of a good leader.

A Character Analysis of Kerima Polotan Tuvera’s The Virgin Essay Essays

A Character Analysis of Kerima Polotan Tuvera’s The Virgin Essay Essays A Character Analysis of Kerima Polotan Tuvera’s The Virgin Essay Paper A Character Analysis of Kerima Polotan Tuvera’s The Virgin Essay Paper Kerima Polotan-Tuvera’s â€Å"The Virgin† is a short narrative that is centered on two characters viz. Miss Mijares and The Carpenter. The rubric â€Å"The Virgin† reflects the topic virginity which is an of import and precious value for Filipinos. A Filipina should be proud to hold maintained her virginity but in the instance of the thirty-four-year-old Miss Mijares. she is ashamed of it. In her 34 old ages of being. she had neer been committed in a relationship. When she was younger. there had been other things to make and she neer put love on top of her precedences. She had college to complete. a niece to set through school. and a female parent to take attention. Her responsibilities became hinderances for her to be in a relationship. Miss Mijares’ childhood experiences and responsibilities affected her personality. Miss Mijares is a thirty-four-year-old adult female who works at a occupation arrangement bureau. The first brush of the two characters is at the occupation interview. The manner Miss Mijares treat him is as aloof and cold merely like the manner she treated her other interviewees. She looks at herself as superior which explains the impolite linguistic communication she uses to pass on with them. Harmonizing to the text â€Å"When she was younger. there had been other things to do-college to complete. a niece to set through school. a female parent to care for. † Her childhood experiences affected the manner she is now. it greatly affected her personality. Harmonizing to the theory of Sigmund Freud viz. Psychoanalytic Theory of Freud. a person’s childhood experience and unconscious head contributes to his or her personality ( Cherry ) . The manner Miss Mijares maintain her distance from other people and the manner she talk to them function as a defence mechanism. Her unsociable manners coupled with Frank and disconnected manner of address is a camouflage for her solitariness. For nine old ages she dutifully looks out for the demands of her female parent. For nine old ages she doesn’t think about her ain felicity for she prioritizes her responsibility to take attention of her parent. Harmonizing to the text â€Å"But it had taken her parent many old ages to decease. Towards the terminal. it had become a ungrateful job. working her mother’s loose flesh. hr after hr. fighting to rouse the cold. sulky blood in her death organic structure. In the terminal. she had died-her toothless. thin-haired. flabby-fleshed mother-and Miss Mijares had pushed against the bed in heartache and besides gratitude. † We can deduce from the manner she dedicated her early old ages to take attention of her female parent that she valued her household more than herself. She was truly affected by the decease of her female parent whom she loved so much and it triggered the alteration in her personality. She exemplified her high quality as a adult female. â€Å"Miss Mijares did non look 34. She was little. about bony. but she had learned early how to dress herself to accomplish an semblance hips and bosom. She liked fagot and shirrings and small girlish pastel colourss. † Harmonizing to this text. Miss Mijares knows how to do her expression appealing to opposite gender. This is her manner to cover with her solitariness. For 34 old ages she has non even touched a adult male. The manner she behaves and trade with other people Acts of the Apostless as a defence mechanism. Harmonizing to the Behavioral Theory. personality is based on the interaction between the person and the environment which can be learned and unconditioned ( Cherry ) . Her bossy and indistinct mode of address coupled with the manner she dress Acts of the Apostless as a defence mechanism to conceal her depression. The â€Å"girlish pastel color† as stated in the narrative is besides a manner to conceal her true feelings. She is ashamed of herself for still being a virgin at the age of thirty-four. â€Å"And yet Miss Mijares did believe of love. † It is stated in the text that Miss Mijares had short lived phantasies. She is still trusting that love will come her manner someday. It all of a sudden happened when he met the carpenter. She is cold and distant at first but all of a sudden she is drawn to the adult male. It all started at the minute she saw the adult male keeping her paperweight. It is a wooden block with a bird poised to flight. The paperweight was damaged with one wing tilted unevenly so the carpenter decided to repair it. The bird symbolizes freedom ; it symbolizes the freedom of Miss Mijares. She lived in a system where virginity is something of import and should be taken attention of. The job is she is trapped in this system because at the age of 34 she is still a virgin who neer touched a adult male. This will alter because of the carpenter. She will be free like the bird in her paperweight fixed by the carpenter. She will be inadvertently attracted to the carpenter. She doesn’t like the manner he talk without permission but it won’t alteration her feelings toward the adult male. When she learned that the chief has merely given him three peso but he is make fulling in for a four-peso occupation. she confronted the chief right off. It non expected for her to be concerned because of her cold and distant manner of handling him. A alteration in her personality can be seen and it is because of the carpenter. Miss Mijares was emotionally attached to the carpenter. She was surprised and angry when she learned that the carpenter has a boy. She thought the he is individual and non committed. After larning that he was raising a kid by a adult female he is non married to. she notice everything else that is incorrect with him-his crooked smile and faulty forepart dentition. Her reaction proved that she is truly in love with the carpenter. She doesn’t even notice his smile and tooth because of her infatuation. Miss Mijares rode once more a jeepney that detoured once more to avoid traffic but this clip he is with the carpenter. It was raining and all of them were asked to acquire down the jeepney. She noticed that there are no other people in sight but the two of them. Her emotion has gone wild for her immature dreams have all of a sudden come to life. She turned to him with her frills moisture and wilted. Out of her free-will. Miss Mijares has grabbed the chance for love. Harmonizing to the Humanist Theory. a person’s free will and single experience contribute to personality development ( Cherry ) . Her feelings for him have changed her personality. She all of a sudden becomes more caring and concerned. Her personal emotion is the factor for the alteration in her personality. The Virgin trades with the life of Miss Mijares. A girl bounded by her responsibility. She lived in a society where virginity is something to take attention of but at the age of 34 she is ashamed that she is still a virgin. Miss Mijares’ childhood experiences and responsibilities affected her personality. The cold and distant personality coupled with a Frank and disconnected mode of address can be traced back in her early old ages. All of these serve as a defence mechanism to conceal her depression. She developed a certain superior outlook that can be seen in the manner she talks during interviews but all of these changed when the carpenter came into her life. The paperweight with a bird on it symbolizes freedom. Miss Mijares was now free from all her anxiousnesss because of the carpenter who brought order in her life merely like how he fixed the paperweight. Her loved for the carpenter brought the alteration in her life.

Challenges of Harmonization of Accounting System

Accounting Standards in other words can be stated as rules which govern the preparation of financial statements. They are the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Where by accounting practices are the actual used practices by accountants. They are influenced by Accounting Standards, which govern the preparation of financial reports. Harmonization of accounting standards† can be defined as the continuous process of ensuring that the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) are formulated, aligned and updated to international best practices (GAAPs in other countries) with suitable modifications and fine tuning considering the domestic conditions. Harmonization is the process of increasing compatibility of accounting practices by setting bounds on their degree of variation. Harmonization can be defined as â€Å"the process of bringing international Accounting Standards into some sort of agreement so that the financial statements from different countries are prepared according to a common set of principles of measurement and disclosure† (Haskins et al. 1996:29). According to Wolk et al. described harmonization of Accounting Standards as â€Å"the co-ordination or similarity among the various sets of national Accounting Standards and methods and formats of financial reporting†. (Kleekamper et al. , 2002) Kleekamperet al. xplain, that the aim of the international harmonization process of Accounting Standards is to reduce or overcome differences world-wide, in order to reach a better international Comparability of financial statements. International accounting harmonization can be defined as â€Å"the process of bringing international Accounting Standards into some sort of agreement so that the financial statements from different countries ar e prepared according to a common set of principles of measurement and disclosure† (Haskins et al. 1996:29). This harmonization is needed due to the globalization of businesses and services and increase in cross-border investments and borrowings and academicians, regulators and governments have been constantly striving to harmonize the local/domestic Accounting Standards(AS), also referred to as Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), with the International Accounting Standards (IAS) issued by the UK based International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) (formerly the International Accounting Standards Committee-IASC). The IASB has been trying to harmonize international accounting principles since 1973. Further, the IASB and the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) have been jointly working on harmonization since July 1995, and in May 2000 the IOSCO finished its review of the IAS and recommended usage of certain IAS, supplemented with reconciliation, disclosure and interpretations. Some benefits of harmonization of accounting practices is as follows * It ensures reliable and high quality financial reporting and disclosures. In certain cases, it can prove to be crucial to the economic and financial development of a country * It enables a systematic review and evaluation of the performance of a multinational company having subsidiaries and associates in various countries wherein each country has its own set of GAAP * It makes the comparison of the performance of a company against its domestic and international peers easier and more meaningful * It is a precursor for accessing international capital markets which can, in turn, reduce the capital cost and consequently, improve the performance of a company * Multinational companies, the multinational companies benefit from closer harmonization for the following reasons a) Access to international finance is easier, the international financial markets understand the financial information presented to them more easily. If the information is provided on a consistent basis between companies irrespective of their country of origin. b) Improved management control, in a business operating in several countries management control is improved. Internal financial information is more easily prepared on consistent basis if externally required financial information is required on a uniform basis. c) Consolidation of financial statement is easier ) A reduction of auditing cost due to harmonized accounting practices and standards. e) A transfer of accounting staff across national borders would be easier f) It would be easier to comply with reporting requirements of overseas stock exchanges. g) Appraisals of foreign entities for take over and mergers would be more straightforward. * International economic groupings, international groupings like EU (European Union) could work more effectively if there were international harmonization of accounting policies. Part of the function of international groupings is go make cross-border trade easier. Similar to accounting regulation would help this process. Government of developing countries would save time and money if they would adopt international standards and, if these were used internally, governments of developing countries could attempt to control the activities of foreign multinational companies in their own country. These companies could not hide behind foreign accounting practices which are difficult to understand. * Tax authorities, it will be easier to calculate the tax liability of investors, including multinationals who receive income from overseas sources. * Large accounting and auditing firms would benefit as accounting and auditing would be much easier if similar accounting practices existed throughout the world. Despite the importance of harmonizing accounting standards, there still challenges facing harmonization of accounting standards between the member countries using IFRS (international financial reporting standard) and also between United States using US GAAP. These challenges are brought about different tax laws, different culture, different legal requirement, nationalism and different needs of financial statements. Speaking of harmonization we should put in consideration of International accounting standard board (IASB) based in UK and Financial accounting standard board (FASB) based in US. The  International Accounting Standards Board  (IASB) is the independent,  accounting standard-setting body of the  IFRS Foundation. The IASB was founded on April 1, 2001 as the successor to the  International Accounting Standards Committee  (IASC). It is responsible for developing  International Financial Reporting Standards  (the new name for  International Accounting Standards  issued after 2001), and promoting the use and application of these standards. The  Financial Accounting Standards Board  (FASB) is a private,  not-for-profit organization  whose primary purpose is to develop generally accepted accounting principles  (GAAP) within the  United States  in the public’s interest. The  Securities and Exchange Commission  (SEC) designated the FASB as the organization responsible for setting accounting standards for public companies in the U. S. It was created in 1973, replacing the  Committee on Accounting Procedure  (CAP) and the  Accounting Principles Board  (APB) of the  American Institute of Certified Public Accountants  (AICPA). The FASB’s mission is â€Å"to establish and improve standards of financial accounting and reporting for the guidance and education of the public, including issuers, auditors, and users of financial information. † To achieve this, FASB has five goals. * Improve the usefulness of financial reporting by focusing on the primary characteristics of relevance and reliability, and on the qualities of comparability and consistency. * Keep standards current to reflect changes in methods of doing business and in the economy. Consider promptly any significant areas of deficiency in financial reporting that might be improved through standard setting. * Promote  international convergence of accounting standards  concurrent with improving the quality of financial reporting. * Im prove common understanding of the nature and purposes of information in financial reports. The two boards have been making efforts to harmonize the accounting principles, as of September 2011, there was a push to harmonize, or integrate, the accounting standards of the United States, which operates under Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), with International Accounting Standards (IAS). The rationale is that it would level the playing field for global businesses by providing regulators, auditors and decision-makers (investors) uniform information based on the same accounting methodologies. Supporters believe that this would improve accountability, reduce international transactional and exchange rate risks and improve information transfer to enhance economic policy decision-making. The difference between IAS and US GAAP is that the former is more principle based and the later is rule based. The following are Challenges to harmonization of accounting systems. Licensing and Enforcement, Individual accountants, CPAs and tax lawyers worldwide would need to comply with and obtain licensing through an internationally accepted rules-making body. If he international body lacks enforcement authority, there is no prosecutorial authority for breaking international laws. However, if the international body does have prosecutorial authority over a U. S. citizen, there would arise jurisdictional and constitutional issues regarding the rights of an international body’s rights to prosecute an American under international law. Finally, issues arise from the perspective of U. S. -only based businesses regarding forced compliance IASB standards are principles-based. Thus the countries that have rules-based standards are expected to experience considerable difficulty in harmonization of their standards with IFRS. There are challenges that IASB and nations adopting IFRS need to address in the coming days. One big challenge for countries adopting IFRS is the shortage of manpower and more particularly, IFRS-trained manpower. For case in point, with just six months to go before China’s listed companies adopt IFRS, demand for accountants is rising and could run into millions in the coming years, if the new standards are rolled out for all of the country’s companies and not just the listed ones. Accountants say that the challenge for China, as it scrambles to meet the accounting shift deadline, will lie in getting its over-1,100 listed companies to establish the appropriate financial reporting systems and in training enough qualified accountants by January. The risk is that some of these companies may fail to make the transition on time. Estimates reveal that China has a shortfall of 300,000 qualified accountants and is likely to require a further three million over the coming years to keep pace with its current rate of economic growth Difference purpose of financial reporting, in some countries the purpose is solely for tax assessment, while others it is for investor decision making, Different legal systems, these prevent the development of certain accounting practices and restrict options available. The Accounting world can be divided into â€Å"those countries which have a ‘legalistic’ orientation toward accounting and those with a ‘non legalistic’ orientation† (Nobes et al. , 1997:8). The non-legalistic approach can be found in countries, which use common law. In Common law countries, Accounting does not depend upon law. Accountants (professional organizations) arrange accounting rules. Hence, it is the private sector, which determines Accounting and not the law (Choi et al. , 200 2). The task of the legal system is to give an answer to a specific case rather than to formulate general rules for the future (Choi et al. 2002). The legalistic approach can be found in countries, which use the so called code (or codified) law. In contrary to the common law, the codified law system needs to develop rules in detail for the Accounting and financial reporting (Nobes, 1994). This means that â€Å"Accounting rules are incorporated into national law and tend to be highly prescriptive and procedural† (Choi et al. , 2002:43). In these countries the role of law is to describe behavior, which isconsidered to be acceptable in the society (Choi et al. , 2002). Different user groups, countries have different ideas about who the relevant user groups and their respective importance. In USA investor and credit groups are given prominence, while in Europe employees enjoy a higher profile. Provider of finance, there three main sources for external capital are shareholders, banks and government (Hill, 1999). It varies from country to country, which of these three provides most of the financial capital to companies. In countries like Germany and Italy banks provide companies with capital. In countries like England and the United States shareholders provide companies with capital. The government is the provider of capital in countries like France and Sweden. (Hill,1999) This diversity of capital providers means that Accounting Practices differ in order to satisfy needs of capital providers. In the case of shareholder ownership, (e. g. in the U. K. and the U. S. ), information disclosure will be more important than in countries, where capital is raised from banks or governments. This is explained by the fact that in the latter countries information will be transmitted more directly. (Radebaugh and Gray, 1997) It is impossible for a company to inform each shareholder with its specific information needs, because they are a big and unorganized group. Therefore financial statements in the US and UK are â€Å"oriented toward providing individual investors with the information they need to make decisions about purchasing or selling corporate stocks and bonds† (Hill, 1999:593). Tax laws, the key question here is to ask, how much taxation regulations determine Accounting measurements. In countries like the U. S. , U. K. and Netherlands there is no interplay between tax and Accounting law. When Accounting Standards are developed, the only focus is how to conduce the information function. Questions about taxation are not considered in those countries (Achleitner, 2000). In contrary, in nations as France and Germany, tax and Accounting Systems are ruled equal (Nobes and Parker, 2000). There is the principle of decisiveness in continental European countries. This means that the profit of the balance sheet is at the same time the foundation to snap income taxes (Achleitner, 2000). In Tanzania income tax act is in dis agreement with some accounting procedures like computation of depreciation, Bad debts and therefore disagree on how accountant compute organization profit and therefore in Tanzania should prepare to set of financial statement one for tax purposes and the other for other users of accounting information. Cultural differences result in objectives for accounting systems differing from country to country for example Islamic laws does not recognize the use of interest rate. The lack of strong accountancy bodies, many countries do not have strong independent accountancy or business bodies which would press for better standards and greater harmonization. Unique circumstances, some countries may be experiencing unusual circumstances which affect all aspects of everyday life an d impinge on the ability of companies to produce proper reports, for example hyperinflation, civil war, currency restriction. Nationalism is demonstrated in an unwillingness to accept another country’s standard. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) in the U. S. is responsible for setting accounting standards based primarily on â€Å"Federal securities laws and state CPA licensing laws. † All countries have specific securities laws, tax laws and banking and financial regulations that dictate accounting principles. Furthermore, in the United States, there are individual state laws that govern business, banking and insurance activities. Adopting international accounting standards would not only conflict with U. S. tatute law, but also constitutional law associated with â€Å"states’ rights. † Stable Platform, Beginning in 2005 , all 7,000 EU publicly traded companies are required to apply IFRS in the preparation of their consolidated financial statements. This represents yet another challenge as preparers of financial statements from Latvia to Portugal and from Poland to Sweden grapple with unfamiliar requirements. In preparation for this sweeping change, the IASB completed its â€Å"stable platform† of standards in March 2004. New and revised standards included five new IFRSs and 17 amended IASs, resulting from the IASB’s Improvements Project and Phase I of its Business Combinations Project. Some of the more significant revisions to IFRS that resulted from these projects include: * The LIFO method for costing inventories is no longer allowed; *   The concepts of â€Å"fundamental error† and â€Å"extraordinary items† are eliminated; *   Trading securities are now included in a larger defined category of financial instruments â€Å"at fair value through profit or loss† and entities may designate any financial asset or liability into this category (commonly referred to as â€Å"the fair value option†); *   Fair value hedge accounting may now be used more readily for a portfolio hedge of interest rate risk; *   Guidelines for share-based payments have been added;   The pooling-of-interests method for business combinations is no longer allowed; *   Goodwill is no longer amortized, and negative goodwill is not recorded in a business combination World wide acceptance, National accounting standards are highly politicized and there is ofte n a natural tendency to place the interests of the national economy ahead of those of the global economy. Private sector businesses and professional accounting bodies also have a vested interest in accounting practices and financial reporting. Pressure from these groups to change or reject certain standards can carry a lot of weight with political decision makers. Adopting international financial standards is met with additional challenges in developing countries. They often lack the resources and infrastructure to adapt national legal and legislative frameworks in which to house the standards, making proper implementation difficult. Training and Retraining, When a country decides to harmonize with the international standards, its companies, accountants and auditors need to be retrained in the new standards and reporting procedures for financial statements. College and university programs in this field also have to undergo significant changes in order to educate new people entering the profession. Before any of this can happen, trainers and professors will require training so they can instruct professionals and students. This will require the development of new learning materials and curricula, new examinations for professional licensing and new accounting software and reporting systems. To further complicate matters, the adoption of harmonized standards has to be phased in, so for a number of years, two different systems are in operation. Such a omplex transition requires a lot of safety mechanisms to ensure it achieves uniform results. To sum up with, Harmonization of financial statement is very crucial for acc ounting profession and also for the global business growth especially for multinational companies which will now find easily in preparation of parent and subsidiary financial statement since have to be prepared according to IFRS. IFRS IS very important to developing countries like Tanzania such as increasing confidence of investors, reduce cost of doing business, facilitate smooth operation of international groupings like EAC and the countries accountant become competitive worldwide. REFERENCES WORD LENGTH: 3517 words Arbnor, I. Bjerke, B. (1997): Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge, Sage Publications, Thousands Oaks, 2nd edition. Ghauri, P. ; Gronhaug, K. (2002): Research Methods in Business Studies, Prentice Hall, London. Choi, F. ; Frost C. ; Gary, K. (2002): International Accounting, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 4th edition. Choi, F. ; Mueller, G. (1992): International Accounting, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2nd edition. Epstein, B. ; Mirza, A. (2001): IAS, Interpretation a nd Application, John Wiley ; Sons, New York. Ghauri P. ; Gronhaug, K. ; Kristianslund, I. (1995): Research Methods in Business Studies: A practical guide, Prentice Hall, Bodmin. Gummesson, E. 2000): Qualitative Methods in Management Research, Sage Publications, Inc, Thousand Oaks, 2nd edition. Helgesson, T. (1996): Culture in International Business: an Introduction, Academia Adacta, Lund. Hill, C. (1999): Competing in the Global Marketplace; Irwin McGraw Hill, Boston, 3rd edition. Hofstede, G. (1991): Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Howard, K. ; Sharp, J. (1983): The Management of a Student Research Project, Gower Publishing Company Ltd. , Aldershot. Johansson, L. (2000): Introduktion till Vetenskapsteorin, AIT Falun AB, Stockholm. Kam, V. (1990): Accounting Theory, John Willey and Sons, New York, 2nd edition. 70 Kleekamper, H. ; Kuhlewind, M. ; Alvarez, M. 2002): Grundlagen, Ziele, Organisation, Entwicklung und Bedeutung des IAS B, in: Rechnungslegung nach International Accounting Standards (IAS), editedy by Baetge, D. ; Kleekamper, H. ; Wollmert, P. ; Kirsch H. (2002), Schafer-Poeschel, Stuttgart, 2nd edition. Naciri, A. ; Hoarau C. (2001): A comparative analysis of american and french financial Reporting philosophies: the case for international Accounting Standards, in: Advances in International Accounting, edited by Sale, J; Salter, S; Sharp, D. (2001), Elsevier Sience Ltd, Oxford. Nobes, C. ; Parker, R. (2000): Comparative International Accounting, Financial Times – Prentice Hall, Hartlow. Nobes, C. 1999): Towards a General Model of the Reasons for International Differences in Financial Reporting, in: International Accounting and Comparative Financial Reporting, edited by Nobes, C. (1998), Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham. Nobes, C; Mueller, G; Gernon, H; Meek, G. (1997): Accounting an International Perspective, Richard D. Irwin, Inc; Chicago, 4th edition. Nobes, C. (1994): Accounting Harmonisation in Europe: Process, progress and prospects, FT Business Information Ltd, London. North, D. (1990): Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Miles, M. ; Huberman, A. (1994): Qualitative Data Analysis – An expanded source book, Sage Publications, Inc, Thousands Oaks, 2nd edition. Mueller, G. 1997): Harmonization Efforts in the European Union, in: International Accounting and Finance Handbook, edited by Choi, F. (1997), Wiley and Sons, New York, 7th edition. Mueller, G. ; Gernon, H. ; Meek, G. (1991): Accounting – an International Perspective; Richard D. Irwin, Inc; Homewood, 2nd edition. Radebaugh, L. ; Daniels, J. (2001): International Business, Environment and Operations, Prentice Hall, London, 9th edition. Radebaugh L. ; Gray S. (1997): International Accounting and multinational enterprises, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 4th edition. Remenyi, D. ; Williams, B. ;Money A. ; Swartz E. (1998): Doing Research in Business and Management: An Introduction to Process and Method, SAGE Publications, London. 71 Riahi-Belkaoui, A. 2000): Accounting Theory, Thomson Learning – Business Press, Padstow, Cornwall, 4th edition. Roberts, C. ; Weetman, P. ; Gordon P. (1998): International Financial Accounting – a comparative approach, Financial Times Pitman Publishing, London. Samuels, J. ; Piper, A. (1985): International Accounting: A survery, Croom Helm, London. Wolk, H. ; Tearney, M. ; Dodd, J. (2001): A Conceptual and intestinal Approach: Accounting Theory, South-Western College Publishing, 5th edition. Wollmert, P. ; Achleitner A. (2002): Konzeption der IAS: Rechnungslegung, in: Rechnungslegung nach International Accounting Standards (IAS), edited by Baetge, D. ; Kleekamper, H. ; Wollmert, P. ; Kirsch, H. (2002):, Schafer-Poeschel, , Stuttgart, 2nd edition. Challenges of Harmonization of Accounting System Accounting Standards in other words can be stated as rules which govern the preparation of financial statements. They are the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Where by accounting practices are the actual used practices by accountants. They are influenced by Accounting Standards, which govern the preparation of financial reports. Harmonization of accounting standards† can be defined as the continuous process of ensuring that the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) are formulated, aligned and updated to international best practices (GAAPs in other countries) with suitable modifications and fine tuning considering the domestic conditions. Harmonization is the process of increasing compatibility of accounting practices by setting bounds on their degree of variation. Harmonization can be defined as â€Å"the process of bringing international Accounting Standards into some sort of agreement so that the financial statements from different countries are prepared according to a common set of principles of measurement and disclosure† (Haskins et al. 1996:29). According to Wolk et al. described harmonization of Accounting Standards as â€Å"the co-ordination or similarity among the various sets of national Accounting Standards and methods and formats of financial reporting†. (Kleekamper et al. , 2002) Kleekamperet al. xplain, that the aim of the international harmonization process of Accounting Standards is to reduce or overcome differences world-wide, in order to reach a better international Comparability of financial statements. International accounting harmonization can be defined as â€Å"the process of bringing international Accounting Standards into some sort of agreement so that the financial statements from different countries ar e prepared according to a common set of principles of measurement and disclosure† (Haskins et al. 1996:29). This harmonization is needed due to the globalization of businesses and services and increase in cross-border investments and borrowings and academicians, regulators and governments have been constantly striving to harmonize the local/domestic Accounting Standards(AS), also referred to as Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), with the International Accounting Standards (IAS) issued by the UK based International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) (formerly the International Accounting Standards Committee-IASC). The IASB has been trying to harmonize international accounting principles since 1973. Further, the IASB and the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) have been jointly working on harmonization since July 1995, and in May 2000 the IOSCO finished its review of the IAS and recommended usage of certain IAS, supplemented with reconciliation, disclosure and interpretations. Some benefits of harmonization of accounting practices is as follows * It ensures reliable and high quality financial reporting and disclosures. In certain cases, it can prove to be crucial to the economic and financial development of a country * It enables a systematic review and evaluation of the performance of a multinational company having subsidiaries and associates in various countries wherein each country has its own set of GAAP * It makes the comparison of the performance of a company against its domestic and international peers easier and more meaningful * It is a precursor for accessing international capital markets which can, in turn, reduce the capital cost and consequently, improve the performance of a company * Multinational companies, the multinational companies benefit from closer harmonization for the following reasons a) Access to international finance is easier, the international financial markets understand the financial information presented to them more easily. If the information is provided on a consistent basis between companies irrespective of their country of origin. b) Improved management control, in a business operating in several countries management control is improved. Internal financial information is more easily prepared on consistent basis if externally required financial information is required on a uniform basis. c) Consolidation of financial statement is easier ) A reduction of auditing cost due to harmonized accounting practices and standards. e) A transfer of accounting staff across national borders would be easier f) It would be easier to comply with reporting requirements of overseas stock exchanges. g) Appraisals of foreign entities for take over and mergers would be more straightforward. * International economic groupings, international groupings like EU (European Union) could work more effectively if there were international harmonization of accounting policies. Part of the function of international groupings is go make cross-border trade easier. Similar to accounting regulation would help this process. Government of developing countries would save time and money if they would adopt international standards and, if these were used internally, governments of developing countries could attempt to control the activities of foreign multinational companies in their own country. These companies could not hide behind foreign accounting practices which are difficult to understand. * Tax authorities, it will be easier to calculate the tax liability of investors, including multinationals who receive income from overseas sources. * Large accounting and auditing firms would benefit as accounting and auditing would be much easier if similar accounting practices existed throughout the world. Despite the importance of harmonizing accounting standards, there still challenges facing harmonization of accounting standards between the member countries using IFRS (international financial reporting standard) and also between United States using US GAAP. These challenges are brought about different tax laws, different culture, different legal requirement, nationalism and different needs of financial statements. Speaking of harmonization we should put in consideration of International accounting standard board (IASB) based in UK and Financial accounting standard board (FASB) based in US. The  International Accounting Standards Board  (IASB) is the independent,  accounting standard-setting body of the  IFRS Foundation. The IASB was founded on April 1, 2001 as the successor to the  International Accounting Standards Committee  (IASC). It is responsible for developing  International Financial Reporting Standards  (the new name for  International Accounting Standards  issued after 2001), and promoting the use and application of these standards. The  Financial Accounting Standards Board  (FASB) is a private,  not-for-profit organization  whose primary purpose is to develop generally accepted accounting principles  (GAAP) within the  United States  in the public’s interest. The  Securities and Exchange Commission  (SEC) designated the FASB as the organization responsible for setting accounting standards for public companies in the U. S. It was created in 1973, replacing the  Committee on Accounting Procedure  (CAP) and the  Accounting Principles Board  (APB) of the  American Institute of Certified Public Accountants  (AICPA). The FASB’s mission is â€Å"to establish and improve standards of financial accounting and reporting for the guidance and education of the public, including issuers, auditors, and users of financial information. † To achieve this, FASB has five goals. * Improve the usefulness of financial reporting by focusing on the primary characteristics of relevance and reliability, and on the qualities of comparability and consistency. * Keep standards current to reflect changes in methods of doing business and in the economy. Consider promptly any significant areas of deficiency in financial reporting that might be improved through standard setting. * Promote  international convergence of accounting standards  concurrent with improving the quality of financial reporting. * Im prove common understanding of the nature and purposes of information in financial reports. The two boards have been making efforts to harmonize the accounting principles, as of September 2011, there was a push to harmonize, or integrate, the accounting standards of the United States, which operates under Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), with International Accounting Standards (IAS). The rationale is that it would level the playing field for global businesses by providing regulators, auditors and decision-makers (investors) uniform information based on the same accounting methodologies. Supporters believe that this would improve accountability, reduce international transactional and exchange rate risks and improve information transfer to enhance economic policy decision-making. The difference between IAS and US GAAP is that the former is more principle based and the later is rule based. The following are Challenges to harmonization of accounting systems. Licensing and Enforcement, Individual accountants, CPAs and tax lawyers worldwide would need to comply with and obtain licensing through an internationally accepted rules-making body. If he international body lacks enforcement authority, there is no prosecutorial authority for breaking international laws. However, if the international body does have prosecutorial authority over a U. S. citizen, there would arise jurisdictional and constitutional issues regarding the rights of an international body’s rights to prosecute an American under international law. Finally, issues arise from the perspective of U. S. -only based businesses regarding forced compliance IASB standards are principles-based. Thus the countries that have rules-based standards are expected to experience considerable difficulty in harmonization of their standards with IFRS. There are challenges that IASB and nations adopting IFRS need to address in the coming days. One big challenge for countries adopting IFRS is the shortage of manpower and more particularly, IFRS-trained manpower. For case in point, with just six months to go before China’s listed companies adopt IFRS, demand for accountants is rising and could run into millions in the coming years, if the new standards are rolled out for all of the country’s companies and not just the listed ones. Accountants say that the challenge for China, as it scrambles to meet the accounting shift deadline, will lie in getting its over-1,100 listed companies to establish the appropriate financial reporting systems and in training enough qualified accountants by January. The risk is that some of these companies may fail to make the transition on time. Estimates reveal that China has a shortfall of 300,000 qualified accountants and is likely to require a further three million over the coming years to keep pace with its current rate of economic growth Difference purpose of financial reporting, in some countries the purpose is solely for tax assessment, while others it is for investor decision making, Different legal systems, these prevent the development of certain accounting practices and restrict options available. The Accounting world can be divided into â€Å"those countries which have a ‘legalistic’ orientation toward accounting and those with a ‘non legalistic’ orientation† (Nobes et al. , 1997:8). The non-legalistic approach can be found in countries, which use common law. In Common law countries, Accounting does not depend upon law. Accountants (professional organizations) arrange accounting rules. Hence, it is the private sector, which determines Accounting and not the law (Choi et al. , 200 2). The task of the legal system is to give an answer to a specific case rather than to formulate general rules for the future (Choi et al. 2002). The legalistic approach can be found in countries, which use the so called code (or codified) law. In contrary to the common law, the codified law system needs to develop rules in detail for the Accounting and financial reporting (Nobes, 1994). This means that â€Å"Accounting rules are incorporated into national law and tend to be highly prescriptive and procedural† (Choi et al. , 2002:43). In these countries the role of law is to describe behavior, which isconsidered to be acceptable in the society (Choi et al. , 2002). Different user groups, countries have different ideas about who the relevant user groups and their respective importance. In USA investor and credit groups are given prominence, while in Europe employees enjoy a higher profile. Provider of finance, there three main sources for external capital are shareholders, banks and government (Hill, 1999). It varies from country to country, which of these three provides most of the financial capital to companies. In countries like Germany and Italy banks provide companies with capital. In countries like England and the United States shareholders provide companies with capital. The government is the provider of capital in countries like France and Sweden. (Hill,1999) This diversity of capital providers means that Accounting Practices differ in order to satisfy needs of capital providers. In the case of shareholder ownership, (e. g. in the U. K. and the U. S. ), information disclosure will be more important than in countries, where capital is raised from banks or governments. This is explained by the fact that in the latter countries information will be transmitted more directly. (Radebaugh and Gray, 1997) It is impossible for a company to inform each shareholder with its specific information needs, because they are a big and unorganized group. Therefore financial statements in the US and UK are â€Å"oriented toward providing individual investors with the information they need to make decisions about purchasing or selling corporate stocks and bonds† (Hill, 1999:593). Tax laws, the key question here is to ask, how much taxation regulations determine Accounting measurements. In countries like the U. S. , U. K. and Netherlands there is no interplay between tax and Accounting law. When Accounting Standards are developed, the only focus is how to conduce the information function. Questions about taxation are not considered in those countries (Achleitner, 2000). In contrary, in nations as France and Germany, tax and Accounting Systems are ruled equal (Nobes and Parker, 2000). There is the principle of decisiveness in continental European countries. This means that the profit of the balance sheet is at the same time the foundation to snap income taxes (Achleitner, 2000). In Tanzania income tax act is in dis agreement with some accounting procedures like computation of depreciation, Bad debts and therefore disagree on how accountant compute organization profit and therefore in Tanzania should prepare to set of financial statement one for tax purposes and the other for other users of accounting information. Cultural differences result in objectives for accounting systems differing from country to country for example Islamic laws does not recognize the use of interest rate. The lack of strong accountancy bodies, many countries do not have strong independent accountancy or business bodies which would press for better standards and greater harmonization. Unique circumstances, some countries may be experiencing unusual circumstances which affect all aspects of everyday life an d impinge on the ability of companies to produce proper reports, for example hyperinflation, civil war, currency restriction. Nationalism is demonstrated in an unwillingness to accept another country’s standard. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) in the U. S. is responsible for setting accounting standards based primarily on â€Å"Federal securities laws and state CPA licensing laws. † All countries have specific securities laws, tax laws and banking and financial regulations that dictate accounting principles. Furthermore, in the United States, there are individual state laws that govern business, banking and insurance activities. Adopting international accounting standards would not only conflict with U. S. tatute law, but also constitutional law associated with â€Å"states’ rights. † Stable Platform, Beginning in 2005 , all 7,000 EU publicly traded companies are required to apply IFRS in the preparation of their consolidated financial statements. This represents yet another challenge as preparers of financial statements from Latvia to Portugal and from Poland to Sweden grapple with unfamiliar requirements. In preparation for this sweeping change, the IASB completed its â€Å"stable platform† of standards in March 2004. New and revised standards included five new IFRSs and 17 amended IASs, resulting from the IASB’s Improvements Project and Phase I of its Business Combinations Project. Some of the more significant revisions to IFRS that resulted from these projects include: * The LIFO method for costing inventories is no longer allowed; *   The concepts of â€Å"fundamental error† and â€Å"extraordinary items† are eliminated; *   Trading securities are now included in a larger defined category of financial instruments â€Å"at fair value through profit or loss† and entities may designate any financial asset or liability into this category (commonly referred to as â€Å"the fair value option†); *   Fair value hedge accounting may now be used more readily for a portfolio hedge of interest rate risk; *   Guidelines for share-based payments have been added;   The pooling-of-interests method for business combinations is no longer allowed; *   Goodwill is no longer amortized, and negative goodwill is not recorded in a business combination World wide acceptance, National accounting standards are highly politicized and there is ofte n a natural tendency to place the interests of the national economy ahead of those of the global economy. Private sector businesses and professional accounting bodies also have a vested interest in accounting practices and financial reporting. Pressure from these groups to change or reject certain standards can carry a lot of weight with political decision makers. Adopting international financial standards is met with additional challenges in developing countries. They often lack the resources and infrastructure to adapt national legal and legislative frameworks in which to house the standards, making proper implementation difficult. Training and Retraining, When a country decides to harmonize with the international standards, its companies, accountants and auditors need to be retrained in the new standards and reporting procedures for financial statements. College and university programs in this field also have to undergo significant changes in order to educate new people entering the profession. Before any of this can happen, trainers and professors will require training so they can instruct professionals and students. This will require the development of new learning materials and curricula, new examinations for professional licensing and new accounting software and reporting systems. To further complicate matters, the adoption of harmonized standards has to be phased in, so for a number of years, two different systems are in operation. Such a omplex transition requires a lot of safety mechanisms to ensure it achieves uniform results. To sum up with, Harmonization of financial statement is very crucial for acc ounting profession and also for the global business growth especially for multinational companies which will now find easily in preparation of parent and subsidiary financial statement since have to be prepared according to IFRS. IFRS IS very important to developing countries like Tanzania such as increasing confidence of investors, reduce cost of doing business, facilitate smooth operation of international groupings like EAC and the countries accountant become competitive worldwide. REFERENCES WORD LENGTH: 3517 words Arbnor, I. Bjerke, B. (1997): Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge, Sage Publications, Thousands Oaks, 2nd edition. Ghauri, P. ; Gronhaug, K. (2002): Research Methods in Business Studies, Prentice Hall, London. Choi, F. ; Frost C. ; Gary, K. (2002): International Accounting, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 4th edition. Choi, F. ; Mueller, G. (1992): International Accounting, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2nd edition. Epstein, B. ; Mirza, A. (2001): IAS, Interpretation a nd Application, John Wiley ; Sons, New York. Ghauri P. ; Gronhaug, K. ; Kristianslund, I. (1995): Research Methods in Business Studies: A practical guide, Prentice Hall, Bodmin. Gummesson, E. 2000): Qualitative Methods in Management Research, Sage Publications, Inc, Thousand Oaks, 2nd edition. Helgesson, T. (1996): Culture in International Business: an Introduction, Academia Adacta, Lund. Hill, C. (1999): Competing in the Global Marketplace; Irwin McGraw Hill, Boston, 3rd edition. Hofstede, G. (1991): Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Howard, K. ; Sharp, J. (1983): The Management of a Student Research Project, Gower Publishing Company Ltd. , Aldershot. Johansson, L. (2000): Introduktion till Vetenskapsteorin, AIT Falun AB, Stockholm. Kam, V. (1990): Accounting Theory, John Willey and Sons, New York, 2nd edition. 70 Kleekamper, H. ; Kuhlewind, M. ; Alvarez, M. 2002): Grundlagen, Ziele, Organisation, Entwicklung und Bedeutung des IAS B, in: Rechnungslegung nach International Accounting Standards (IAS), editedy by Baetge, D. ; Kleekamper, H. ; Wollmert, P. ; Kirsch H. (2002), Schafer-Poeschel, Stuttgart, 2nd edition. Naciri, A. ; Hoarau C. (2001): A comparative analysis of american and french financial Reporting philosophies: the case for international Accounting Standards, in: Advances in International Accounting, edited by Sale, J; Salter, S; Sharp, D. (2001), Elsevier Sience Ltd, Oxford. Nobes, C. ; Parker, R. (2000): Comparative International Accounting, Financial Times – Prentice Hall, Hartlow. Nobes, C. 1999): Towards a General Model of the Reasons for International Differences in Financial Reporting, in: International Accounting and Comparative Financial Reporting, edited by Nobes, C. (1998), Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham. Nobes, C; Mueller, G; Gernon, H; Meek, G. (1997): Accounting an International Perspective, Richard D. Irwin, Inc; Chicago, 4th edition. Nobes, C. (1994): Accounting Harmonisation in Europe: Process, progress and prospects, FT Business Information Ltd, London. North, D. (1990): Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Miles, M. ; Huberman, A. (1994): Qualitative Data Analysis – An expanded source book, Sage Publications, Inc, Thousands Oaks, 2nd edition. Mueller, G. 1997): Harmonization Efforts in the European Union, in: International Accounting and Finance Handbook, edited by Choi, F. (1997), Wiley and Sons, New York, 7th edition. Mueller, G. ; Gernon, H. ; Meek, G. (1991): Accounting – an International Perspective; Richard D. Irwin, Inc; Homewood, 2nd edition. Radebaugh, L. ; Daniels, J. (2001): International Business, Environment and Operations, Prentice Hall, London, 9th edition. Radebaugh L. ; Gray S. (1997): International Accounting and multinational enterprises, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 4th edition. Remenyi, D. ; Williams, B. ;Money A. ; Swartz E. (1998): Doing Research in Business and Management: An Introduction to Process and Method, SAGE Publications, London. 71 Riahi-Belkaoui, A. 2000): Accounting Theory, Thomson Learning – Business Press, Padstow, Cornwall, 4th edition. Roberts, C. ; Weetman, P. ; Gordon P. (1998): International Financial Accounting – a comparative approach, Financial Times Pitman Publishing, London. Samuels, J. ; Piper, A. (1985): International Accounting: A survery, Croom Helm, London. Wolk, H. ; Tearney, M. ; Dodd, J. (2001): A Conceptual and intestinal Approach: Accounting Theory, South-Western College Publishing, 5th edition. Wollmert, P. ; Achleitner A. (2002): Konzeption der IAS: Rechnungslegung, in: Rechnungslegung nach International Accounting Standards (IAS), edited by Baetge, D. ; Kleekamper, H. ; Wollmert, P. ; Kirsch, H. (2002):, Schafer-Poeschel, , Stuttgart, 2nd edition.